The Celestial Mandate: Deconstructing China’s Grand Strategy for Space Dominance (2050-2300)

Part I: The Roadmap to 2050 – Ambition Codified

On October 15, 2024, the government of the People’s Republic of China (PRC) released its first national-level, long-term plan for space science.¹ This document, titled the “National Medium—and Long-Term Development Plan for Space Science (2024-2050),” codifies the nation’s celestial ambitions for the next quarter-century. The country’s three primary space institutions—the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), the China National Space Administration (CNSA), and the China Manned Space Agency (CMSE)—co-authored the plan.¹

This plan is not a simple schedule of missions. It is a comprehensive strategy designed to achieve a singular objective: establish China as the world’s preeminent space power by the mid-21st century.¹,² The document meticulously outlines five core scientific themes and a methodical three-phase implementation.³ It also calls for a dramatic acceleration of missions to produce revolutionary breakthroughs. Deconstructing this plan reveals a coherent, patient, and deeply strategic approach to mastering the space domain, with profound implications for science, economics, and global security.

The Five Pillars of Celestial Inquiry: Defining the Scope of Ambition

Five key scientific themes form the intellectual and operational core of the 2050 plan. Each theme encompasses a set of priority research areas.²,⁴ These are not merely academic pursuits; they function as strategic vectors to develop critical technologies, acquire foundational knowledge, and address profound scientific questions. Collectively, they represent a systematic effort to push the frontiers of human understanding across the entire spectrum of space science.³,⁴

“Extreme Universe” Exploration: This is the most profound and far-reaching of the five pillars. The plan officially defines this mission as the effort “to explore the origin and evolution of the universe, revealing the physical laws under extreme cosmic conditions”.⁵,⁶,⁷

Its priority areas are fundamental. They include the study of dark matter, the universe’s origin and evolution (specifically targeting the cosmic “dark ages”), and the detection of cosmic baryonic matter.⁵,⁶ This theme directly confronts the greatest mysteries in modern physics, such as the nature of dark matter and the enigmatic force of dark energy.⁶,⁷

This theme represents a state-sponsored quest for new physics. China is probing the universe’s most extreme environments where existing theories like General Relativity are known to be incomplete. By doing so, it makes a strategic, long-term investment in discovering revolutionary scientific principles. Historically, breakthroughs in fundamental physics have unlocked paradigm-shifting technologies. The “Extreme Universe” theme is a patient, multi-decade bet that the nation discovering the next generation of physical laws will master the next generation of technology.

“Space-Time Ripples”: This theme focuses on the nascent field of gravitational wave astronomy. Its primary objective is to detect medium- to low-frequency gravitational waves. The overarching goal is to “uncover the nature of gravity and space-time”.⁶,⁷,⁸ This research requires space-based observatories to sense the gentle stretching of space-time caused by the mergers of supermassive black holes.⁶ By observing these events, scientists can test the limits of Einstein’s theory of gravity and gain unprecedented insight into the co-evolution of galaxies and their central black holes.⁶

“Panorama of the Sun-Earth”: This pillar involves a comprehensive exploration of the Sun, the Earth, the Moon, and the heliosphere. The goal is to “unravel the physical processes and laws governing the complex interactions within the Sun-Earth system”.⁶,⁹ The plan lists five priority areas: understanding Earth’s global cycle systems, conducting comprehensive observations of cislunar space, improving space weather prediction, undertaking three-dimensional solar exploration, and sending probes to the heliospheric boundary.³,⁶,⁹

“Habitable Planets”: This theme addresses the timeless question of whether humanity is alone in the universe. It encompasses the search for life and habitable environments within our solar system and on exoplanets. Priority areas include “solar system archaeology,” characterization of planetary atmospheres, the direct search for extraterrestrial life, and the detection of exoplanets.³,⁷,⁹ Key scientific questions include assessing the habitability of Mars, the icy moons of Jupiter and Saturn, and nearby Earth-like exoplanets.²

“Biological and Physical Space Science”: This final theme seeks to leverage the unique environment of space—specifically microgravity—to “reveal the laws of matter movement and life activities under space conditions”.⁷,⁸,⁹ This research aims to deepen the understanding of fundamental physics and explore the biological effects of long-duration spaceflight. Priority areas include microgravity science, space life sciences, and fundamental physics experiments in orbit.³,⁶,⁸

Scientific Theme	Official Description	Priority Areas	Key Scientific Questions Addressed
Extreme Universe	Exploring the origin and evolution of the universe and revealing the physical laws under extreme cosmic conditions. 1	Dark matter & extreme universe; Universe’s origin & evolution; Detection of cosmic baryonic matter. 3	What is the nature of dark matter and dark energy? What is the history of the cosmic dark ages and reionization? What are the sources of high-energy cosmic radiation? 1
Space-Time Ripples	Detecting medium- to low-frequency and primordial gravitational waves to uncover the nature of gravity and space-time. 1	Space-based probes of gravitational waves. 1	How do supermassive black holes form and evolve with their host galaxies? What is the fine structure of strong gravitational fields near black holes? 1
Panorama of the Sun-Earth	Exploring the Sun, Earth, and heliosphere to reveal the physical processes governing the complex Sun-Earth system. 1	Earth system cycles; Comprehensive cislunar exploration; Space weather observation; Stereoscopic solar exploration; Heliospheric boundary exploration. 5	What are the characteristics of solar magnetic activity and the origin of the magnetic cycle? How do solar wind disturbances propagate? How does energy transfer across scales in geospace? 1
Habitable Planets	Accessing the habitability of solar system bodies and exoplanets while searching for extraterrestrial life. 6	Sustainable development; Solar system archaeology; Characterization of planetary atmospheres; Search for extraterrestrial life; Exoplanet detection. 5	What are the signs of extraterrestrial life on Mars, icy moons, and ice giants? What are the characteristics of nearby habitable exoplanets? 7
Biological and Physical Space Science	Revealing the laws of matter movement and life activities under space conditions to deepen the understanding of fundamental physics. 6	Microgravity science; Quantum mechanics & general relativity; Space life sciences. 5	How does the human body adapt to long-duration spaceflight? How do fundamental physical laws behave in microgravity? Can space be used for novel technological applications? 1

The Phased Ascent: A Three-Act Drama in Space

The 2050 roadmap is a carefully structured, three-phase plan. It demonstrates a deliberate and escalating progression of capability and ambition. This approach allows for the systematic maturation of technology, the accumulation of experience, and the strategic alignment of resources. Each stage builds upon the successes of the last.

• Phase 1 (2024-2027): Consolidation and Preparation. The initial phase focuses on consolidating existing gains. Key tasks include maintaining the Tiangong space station, implementing crewed lunar exploration, and completing the fourth phase of the Chang’e and Tianwen programs.³,⁹,¹⁰ During this period, China will approve 5 to 8 new space science satellite missions.³,¹⁰,¹¹ This phase is about mastering the technologies necessary for complex missions, laying a solid foundation for what follows.
• Phase 2 (2028-2035): Infrastructure and Expansion. The second phase marks a shift from exploration to establishment. The defining objective is the construction of the International Lunar Research Station (ILRS) at the Moon’s south pole.³,⁸,¹⁰ The operational tempo will increase dramatically, with plans for approximately 15 scientific satellite missions.³,⁸,¹⁰ This phase represents the transition to a sustainable, long-term off-world presence. China envisions the ILRS as core infrastructure for lunar resource utilization and a staging point for deeper space missions.¹²,¹³
• Phase 3 (2036-2050): The Push for Dominance. The final phase explicitly aims for global leadership. The stated goal is to reach a “world-leading level” in key areas and make “revolutionary breakthroughs” in basic research.²,⁶ To accomplish this, the plan calls for over 30 space science missions.³,⁸ This surge of activity is designed to cement China’s position as the preeminent space power. By 2049, the 100th anniversary of the PRC’s founding, China intends for its space program to be a crowning symbol of its “national rejuvenation”.¹⁴

Speculative Mission Dossier (2036-2050)

The 2050 plan does not provide a detailed mission manifest for its final phase. However, by extrapolating from the 17 priority areas, we can construct a plausible forecast of the missions that will constitute this “push for dominance.” These will likely be flagship-class endeavors designed to answer the most pressing scientific questions.

Missions under “Extreme Universe”:

• Cosmic Dawn Telescope: To address the priority of understanding the universe’s origin, this mission would serve as China’s premier deep-space observatory. It would likely be a large-aperture infrared space telescope at the Sun-Earth L2 Lagrange point. Its primary mission would be to study the “cosmic dark ages” and the era of reionization.⁶
• Dark Matter Particle Observatory 2.0: Building on its first dark matter probe, China will likely pursue a more advanced mission. A successor to the “Wukong” (DAMPE) satellite, this mission would feature new particle detectors with improved resolution and sensitivity to search for dark matter particle signals.
• Baryonic Web Mapper: To solve the “missing baryon problem,” a dedicated mission to map the cosmic web is a logical next step. This would likely be a satellite constellation designed to map the diffuse filaments of gas connecting galaxies, addressing an explicit priority of the plan.⁵,⁶

Missions under “Space-Time Ripples”:

• Taiji Program: As a cornerstone of this theme, this observatory would open a new window on the universe. The Taiji Program is a planned space-based gravitational wave observatory. It would consist of three spacecraft in a triangular formation, using lasers to measure infinitesimal changes in distance between them. This would make it sensitive to low-frequency gravitational waves from supermassive black hole mergers.⁶

Missions under “Panorama of the Sun-Earth”:

• Heliospheric Boundary Explorer: To fulfill the goal of exploring the solar system’s edge, China will likely launch its own interstellar pathfinder. This dedicated probe would exit the solar system, similar to NASA’s Voyager probes, to directly study the heliopause and the interstellar medium.⁶,⁹
• ILRS-Based Earth & Cislunar Observatory Network: Leveraging its lunar base, China can establish an unparalleled observation post. This network would use the completed ILRS as a stable platform for instruments observing Earth’s climate and monitoring the entire cislunar domain.
• Geospace Dynamics Constellation: To master space weather prediction, a multi-satellite mission is essential. This mission would provide a three-dimensional view of the interactions within Earth’s magnetosphere, ionosphere, and thermosphere, which is critical for developing advanced prediction models.

Missions under “Habitable Planets”:

• Tianwen-5 (Ice Giant Orbiter): With missions to Mars and Jupiter planned, the next logical target is an ice giant. This flagship mission would send an orbiter to either Uranus or Neptune for the first-ever detailed study of one of these planets.¹⁵
• Exoplanet Atmosphere Surveyor: The search for life requires a powerful space telescope. This mission would involve a large telescope with advanced spectrographs to characterize the atmospheres of nearby Earth-like exoplanets, searching for biosignatures like oxygen and methane.²,¹¹,¹⁷
• Europa/Enceladus Life Finder: Representing the pinnacle of this theme, a mission to directly search for life in a subsurface ocean would be a landmark achievement. This ambitious mission could involve an orbiter-lander or a cryobot designed to penetrate the ice shell and sample the ocean directly.

Missions under “Biological and Physical Sciences”:

• Deep Space Quantum Entanglement Test: Pushing the boundaries of fundamental physics, this mission would test quantum mechanics over unprecedented distances. It would use a dedicated satellite or piggyback on a deep space probe to test quantum principles and advance communication technologies.
• Lunar Fission Power Demonstrator: Power is the ultimate enabler for a permanent off-world presence. As part of the ILRS build-out, a mission would test a compact nuclear fission reactor on the lunar surface. This technology is essential for providing the continuous power required for long-term habitation and resource utilization.

Mission Name	Planned Launch Window	Target	Primary Objective	Strategic Significance
Chang’e-7	~2026 8	Lunar South Pole	Comprehensive survey of the environment and resources, including water ice. 8	Identifies key resources for the ILRS; lays the groundwork for ISRU.
Chang’e-8	~2028-2030 4	Lunar South Pole	Technological verification of in-situ resource utilization (ISRU) and 3D printing. 4	Forms the basic model of the ILRS with Chang’e-7; proves technologies for self-sufficiency.
Tianwen-2	~2025 8	Near-Earth Asteroid	Collect and return samples from an asteroid. 8	Masters complex robotic operations in deep space; precursor to asteroid mining.
Tianwen-3	~2028-2030 9	Mars	Collect and return the first samples from Mars. 9	Major scientific and prestige victory; develops technologies for future Mars missions.
Tianwen-4	~2029 8	Jupiter System & Uranus	Explore the Jovian system and conduct a flyby of Uranus. 8	Demonstrates capability for outer solar system exploration; rivals NASA’s flagship missions.
Projected: Tianwen-5	2030s	Uranus or Neptune	First dedicated orbiter mission to an ice giant.	Cements leadership in planetary science; explores the least-understood class of planets.

Part II: The Strategic Calculus – Earthly Drivers for Celestial Expansion

A powerful set of national interests propels China’s ambitious space program. These interests link celestial exploration directly to a broader grand strategy for geopolitical influence, military power, and economic dominance.¹⁷,¹⁸ The scientific objectives in the 2050 plan serve as both a goal and a justification for developing advanced, dual-use capabilities. Understanding these terrestrial drivers is essential to grasping the full strategic implications of China’s rise as a space power.

The Dual-Use Imperative: Science as a Veil for Military Supremacy

From its inception, the People’s Liberation Army (PLA) has been inextricably linked to China’s space program.¹⁷ As NASA Administrator Bill Nelson stated, China’s “civilian space program is a military program”.¹⁶,¹⁹ The technologies required for the 2050 plan have direct military applications, allowing China to build formidable counter-space capabilities under the guise of peaceful exploration.¹,²⁰

• Dominant Space Domain Awareness (SDA): The “Sun-Earth Panorama” theme is fundamental to achieving dominant Space Domain Awareness.⁶ The ability to detect, track, and characterize all objects in cislunar space is a prerequisite for military operations in this domain. A sensor network on the Moon would provide a persistent, high-ground perspective, enabling the PLA to monitor all traffic between Earth and the Moon.
• Resilient C4ISR and Navigation: The plan’s focus on space weather prediction is vital for ensuring the resilience of military satellite constellations.⁹ A major solar flare could disable critical C4ISR satellites. By forecasting these events, the PLA can protect its assets while potentially exploiting an adversary’s vulnerabilities.²¹,²² Furthermore, the BeiDou navigation system provides a resilient alternative to GPS, which is critical for military operations.¹⁶,¹⁹
• Advanced On-Orbit and Counter-Space Capabilities: The technologies for complex robotic missions are inherently dual-use. The capabilities for an asteroid sample return mission are the same needed for on-orbit servicing, assembly, and manufacturing (OSAM).¹⁸ These same robotic systems, as demonstrated by China’s Shijian-21 satellite, can also inspect, grapple, or disable adversary satellites, providing a potent counter-space weapon.²³

The Resource Frontier: Securing the Solar System’s Bounty

The 2050 plan signals a clear intent to move from scientific exploration to the economic exploitation of celestial resources. This represents a long-term strategy to secure materials and energy that will be critical for sustaining a large-scale space presence and bolstering China’s economy.

Lunar Water Ice as a Strategic Asset

The intense focus on the Moon’s south pole with missions like Chang’e-7 and Chang’e-8 is driven by one objective: to locate and control lunar water ice.²,⁹,¹³ Wu Weiren, chief designer of China’s lunar exploration project, stated that utilizing water is the key to establishing a long-term human presence on the Moon.¹³

The strategic importance of this resource is immense. Establishing the ILRS at the lunar south pole is a move to control the most valuable real estate off Earth. The water ice deposits are the equivalent of the Suez Canal for the future space economy—a critical logistical chokepoint.

Water can be broken down into rocket propellant. A base that can produce its own propellant on the Moon, a process known as ISRU, fundamentally changes the economics of space exploration. It dramatically reduces the cost of missions to Mars and beyond. The nation that controls this off-world refueling capability becomes the gatekeeper for deep space. By establishing the ILRS first, China aims to set operational standards, control access to this resource, and dominate the future cislunar economy.

Asteroid Mining and Space-Based Solar Power (SBSP)

Beyond the Moon, the plan identifies asteroid exploration as a key goal.¹⁵,²⁴ The Tianwen-2 mission builds capabilities for future industrial-scale resource extraction from asteroids. In the longer term, China views space-based solar power as a potential solution to its terrestrial energy needs, a stated goal of its long-range planning.²⁴

Techno-Nationalism and the “China Dream” of National Rejuvenation

The space program is a powerful instrument of statecraft and a central pillar of the Chinese Communist Party’s political narrative. Under President Xi Jinping, it has become a potent symbol of the “China Dream” of national rejuvenation—the goal of restoring China to a position of global leadership.¹⁷,²⁵

• Achieving Technological Self-Reliance: A core tenet of China’s strategy is self-reliance in critical technologies.¹⁷,²⁶ The space program acts as an engine for innovation in fields like AI, robotics, and advanced materials. By mastering these technologies independently, China aims to reduce its reliance on foreign suppliers and surpass the West.
• Inspiring National Pride and Projecting Power: High-profile achievements in space are invaluable for the CCP’s legitimacy. Successful missions are celebrated as tangible proof of the Party’s competence.¹⁶,²⁴ These missions project an image of a technologically advanced and powerful nation, bolstering national pride and enhancing China’s prestige.

Celestial Diplomacy: The Space Silk Road and the ILRS Bloc

China actively uses space cooperation as a tool of foreign policy. It is building a geopolitical coalition that presents an alternative to the U.S.-led international order in space.

• The ILRS vs. Artemis Accords: The International Lunar Research Station project is a direct competitor to the U.S.-led Artemis Accords. China has built a separate coalition for the ILRS, including partners like Russia, Pakistan, and Venezuela.¹⁶,¹⁹ This forms a distinct geopolitical bloc. By creating its own multilateral framework, China is positioning itself to shape international norms and governance for all future activities on the Moon.
• The Space Silk Road: The space program is a critical dimension of China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). This “Space Silk Road” involves providing satellite launch services, Earth observation data, and navigation services from its BeiDou system to partner nations.¹⁶,¹⁹ By building infrastructure for developing countries, China creates technological and diplomatic dependencies, weaving them into a China-centric global network.

Part III: Projecting the Future – China’s Space Trajectory to 2300

Extrapolating from the 2050 plan allows for a long-range forecast of China’s trajectory over the next three centuries. This projection assumes continued national will and investment. It illustrates a logical progression from mastering the local space environment to commanding the solar system’s resources and, ultimately, reaching for the stars.

The 2100 Horizon: A Cislunar Economy and Martian Foothold

By 2100, China’s space presence will have transitioned from exploration to a permanent, industrial infrastructure. The ILRS will have evolved into a crewed lunar industrial hub. The cislunar space between Earth and the Moon will be a bustling economic zone dominated by Chinese state-owned enterprises. This zone will feature lunar mining, in-space manufacturing, and propellant production facilities.

Following a successful crewed Mars landing around mid-century,¹⁴,²⁷ China will operate a permanent industrial outpost on the Martian surface. This base will be largely automated, focused on resource prospecting and preparing for larger-scale settlement. Key enabling technologies will include mastery of ISRU, advanced nuclear fission reactors for surface power, and a fully reusable Earth-to-Moon transportation architecture.

The 2200 Vista: Mastering the Inner Solar System

With a mature cislunar economy as its foundation, China’s strategic focus in the 22nd century will shift to the full-scale industrialization of the inner solar system. This will involve extensive asteroid mining operations. Fleets of robotic craft will extract vast quantities of resources to supply Earth’s manufacturing sector and a growing network of orbital habitats. The Martian base will have expanded into a self-sustaining colony, with early-stage terraforming experiments underway.

A critical enabling technology for this era will be an advanced, distributed artificial intelligence network. The “Three-Body Computing Constellation,” an AI supercomputer array in orbit, is a foundational element for this future.²⁸ Managing a solar system-wide industrial empire presents an impossible logistical challenge for centralized human control due to light-speed communication delays.

A distributed, autonomous AI network becomes the essential “nervous system” for this enterprise. It will manage robotic mining fleets, optimize supply chains, and make critical real-time decisions without human intervention. By developing this capability early, China is building the indispensable command-and-control infrastructure for its future solar system-spanning enterprise. This AI system, combined with fusion-based propulsion, will be the key to unlocking the resources of the inner solar system.

Scientific Theme	Potential Mission Concept	Scientific Objective	Enabling Infrastructure	Potential Dual-Use Application
Extreme Universe	Cosmic Dawn Telescope	Study the universe’s first stars and galaxies during the era of reionization. 1	Super-heavy lift launch vehicle; L2 Lagrange point operations.	Advanced optics and sensor technology applicable to next-generation reconnaissance satellites.
Space-Time Ripples	Taiji Program (Gravitational Wave Observatory)	Detect mergers of supermassive black holes and test the limits of General Relativity. 1	Precision formation flying; Ultra-stable laser interferometry.	Technologies for precise navigation and timing, and potentially for detecting stealth objects in space.
Panorama of the Sun-Earth	Heliospheric Boundary Explorer	Conduct in-situ measurements of the heliopause and interstellar medium. 1	Long-life spacecraft design; Radioisotope power sources.	Deep space communication and navigation technologies essential for interplanetary military operations.
Habitable Planets	Exoplanet Atmosphere Surveyor	Characterize atmospheres of nearby Earth-like exoplanets and search for biosignatures. 7	Large-aperture space telescope; Advanced spectroscopy.	High-resolution imaging capabilities applicable to detailed surveillance of terrestrial and space targets.
Biological and Physical Space Science	Lunar Fission Power Demonstrator	Test a compact nuclear reactor for providing continuous power on the lunar surface. 7	ILRS infrastructure; Robotic deployment systems.	Compact nuclear power sources for military satellites, enabling high-power radar, directed energy, and electronic warfare.

The 2300 Outlook: The Interstellar Threshold

Having consolidated control over the solar system’s resources, China’s grand project will pivot towards the ultimate frontier: interstellar expansion. The primary focus of the 23rd century will be developing the revolutionary propulsion systems required to reach nearby star systems within a human lifetime. The foundational research into new physics, initiated under the “Extreme Universe” theme, will be expected to have provided the theoretical basis for these technologies.

The first robotic interstellar probes, perhaps powered by fusion rockets or beamed energy, will launch toward promising targets like Proxima Centauri. Concurrently, a massive project to design and construct a crewed, multi-generational worldship will be underway. This final pivot represents the culmination of a centuries-long strategic vision: to ensure the long-term survival and expansion of the Chinese state and civilization.

Conclusion: The Red Star Ascendant – Implications for Global Strategy

The “National Medium—and Long-Term Development Plan for Space Science (2024-2050)” is a document of historic significance. It reveals that China’s space program is a coherent, patient, and multi-generational grand strategy. This strategy is designed to achieve a cascading set of objectives: near-term scientific prestige, mid-term military advantage, and long-term economic dominance through the control of celestial resources. Ultimately, it is a plan to displace the United States as the world’s leading power.

The plan’s five pillars and three phases demonstrate a methodical ambition. The dual-use nature of the required technologies ensures that every scientific advance enhances the PLA’s capabilities. The strategic focus on the lunar south pole reveals a clear-eyed plan to seize the logistical high ground of the future space economy. The CCP wraps this entire endeavor in the powerful political narrative of national rejuvenation, serving as a potent symbol of its legitimacy.

For Western policymakers, the implications are stark. The United States and its allies face a competitor with a clear, long-term vision and the resources to execute it. A reactive, short-term approach to space policy will be insufficient. Responding effectively will require a similarly long-term, comprehensive strategy that integrates national security, scientific, and economic objectives. It will demand sustained investment, a vibrant commercial space sector, and strong international alliances like the Artemis Accords. The contest for the high ground of space will decisively shape the contest for leadership in the 21st century.

Beyond a simple bipolar contest, this new era may give rise to a more complex, multipolar space order. Non-aligned nations will face strategic choices, potentially forming third blocs or leveraging the competition to advance their own programs. This dynamic underscores the urgent need for a robust international dialogue to establish clear norms of behavior and updated space treaties. Without such a framework, the risk of miscalculation, conflict over resources, and weaponization of the celestial domain will grow.

Glossary of Terms

• C4ISR: An acronym for Command, Control, Communications, Computers, Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance. It refers to the integrated systems that give military commanders situational awareness and the ability to direct forces.
• Cislunar Space: The region of space located between the Earth and the Moon. It is considered a strategically vital area for future space operations and commerce.
• Heliosphere: The vast, bubble-like region of space dominated by the Sun and the solar wind that it emits. The heliopause is its outer boundary.
• In-Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU): The practice of collecting, processing, and using materials found or manufactured on other celestial bodies (like the Moon or Mars) to support exploration missions. This reduces the need to launch heavy materials from Earth.
• Lagrange Points: Specific points in space where the gravitational forces of a two-body system (like the Sun and Earth) balance out, allowing a spacecraft to maintain a stable position with minimal fuel consumption.
• Space Domain Awareness (SDA): The effective identification, tracking, and understanding of all factors and activities in the space domain that could affect space operations, national security, or economic interests.

Further Reading

• Official White Papers on China’s Space Activities: Published periodically by the State Council Information Office of the PRC, these documents provide official summaries of past achievements and outlines for near-term goals.
• Publications from the China National Space Administration (CNSA) and the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS): These institutions often release detailed plans, mission updates, and scientific findings related to the space program.
• Reports from Western Space Policy Institutes and Government Agencies: Organizations such as NASA, the European Space Agency (ESA), and various independent think tanks regularly publish analyses of China’s space capabilities and strategic direction.
• Academic Journals in Aerospace and International Relations: Scholarly articles provide in-depth analysis of the technical, political, and strategic dimensions of China’s space ambitions.

Works Cited

¹ Jamestown Foundation. “PRC Unveils New Space Plan.” October 15, 2024. https://jamestown.org/program/prc-unveils-new-space-plan/

² ECNS.cn. “China unveils future space science plan.” October 16, 2024. http://www.ecns.cn/news/sci-tech/2024-10-16/detail-iheiaxwf5243683.shtml

³ The State Council of the People’s Republic of China. “China releases space science development program for 2024-2050.” October 15, 2024. https://english.www.gov.cn/news/202410/15/content_WS670e03b9c6d0868f4e8ebe40.html

⁴ TV BRICS. “China unveils space science roadmap for 2024-2050.” October 15, 2024. https://tvbrics.com/en/news/china-unveils-space-science-roadmap-for-2024-2050/

⁵ Chinese Academy of Sciences. “China Releases Space Science Development Program for 2024-2050.” October 15, 2024. https://english.cas.cn/newsroom/cas_media/202410/t20241015_691782.shtml

⁶ National Space Science Center, CAS. “National Mid- and Long-term Plan for Space Science in China（2024-2050).” October 28, 2024. http://english.nssc.cas.cn/pub/202410/t20241028_692867.html

⁷ CGTN. “China releases first national plan for space science development.” October 15, 2024. https://news.cgtn.com/news/2024-10-15/China-releases-first-national-plan-for-space-science-development-1xIniqt8FNK/p.html

⁸ Leonard David. “China Unveils Space Science Exploration Roadmap.” LeonardDavid.com. October 15, 2024. https://www.leonarddavid.com/china-unveils-space-science-exploration-roadmap/

⁹ Chinese Academy of Sciences. “China Releases Space Science Development Program for 2024-2050.” October 15, 2024. https://english.cas.cn/newsroom/cas_media/202410/t20241015_691782.shtml

¹⁰ ECNS.cn. “China unveils roadmap for space science development till 2050.” October 15, 2024. http://www.ecns.cn/news/cns-wire/2024-10-15/detail-iheiaxwf5243092.shtml

¹¹ China Daily Hong Kong. “China releases space science development program for 2024-2050.” October 15, 2024. https://www.chinadailyhk.com/hk/article/595317

¹² United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs. “China Space International Cooperation Future Plans and Prospects.” 2023. https://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/copuos/2023/TPs/China_Space_International_CooperationFuture_Plans_and_Prospects.pdf

¹³ Leonard David. “China’s Deep Space Exploration: Moon, Mars and Beyond Blueprint.” LeonardDavid.com. October 15, 2024. https://www.leonarddavid.com/chinas-deep-space-exploration-moon-mars-and-beyond-blueprint/

¹⁴ Air University (CASI). “The Real Space Race: China Will Send a Crew to Orbit Mars by 2050.” May 5, 2025. https://www.airuniversity.af.edu/Portals/10/CASI/documents/Research/Space/2025-05-05%20The%20Real%20Space%20Race%20China%20Will%20Send%20a%20Crew%20to%20Orbit%20Mars%20by%202050.pdf?ver=5pT8gZsloeqXRiv3F43GnA%3D%3D

¹⁵ United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs. “China Space International Cooperation Future Plans and Prospects.” 2023. https://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/copuos/2023/TPs/China_Space_International_CooperationFuture_Plans_and_Prospects.pdf

¹⁶ Asia Pacific Foundation of Canada. “China: A Global Power’s Celestial Ambitions.” May 2024. https://www.asiapacific.ca/publication/china-global-powers-celestial-ambitions

¹⁷ National Bureau of Asian Research. “A Domain of Great Powers: The Strategic Role of Space in Achieving China’s Dream of National Rejuvenation.” Strategic Space. 2024. https://strategicspace.nbr.org/a-domain-of-great-powers-the-strategic-role-of-space-in-achieving-chinas-dream-of-national-rejuvenation/

¹⁸ National Space Science Center, CAS. “English translation of National Mid- and Long-term Plan for Space.” October 28, 2024. http://english.nssc.cas.cn/news/202410/t20241028_692858.html

¹⁹ Asia Pacific Foundation of Canada. “China: A Global Power’s Celestial Ambitions.” May 2024. https://www.asiapacific.ca/publication/china-global-powers-celestial-ambitions

²⁰ Voice of America. “China Space Plan Highlights Commitment to Space Exploration, Analysts Say.” October 2024. https://www.voanews.com/a/china-space-plan-highlights-commitment-to-space-exploration-analysts-say/7836873.html

²¹ Jamestown Foundation. “PRC Unveils New Space Plan.” October 15, 2024. https://jamestown.org/program/prc-unveils-new-space-plan/

²² The Wire. “A Silk Road in Space: China’s Space Plan for 2050.” October 2024. https://m.thewire.in/article/space/a-silk-road-in-space-chinas-space-plan-for-2050?utm=ampnext

²³ National Bureau of Asian Research. “China’s Vision for Space.” Strategic Space. 2024. https://strategicspace.nbr.org/publication/chinas-vision-for-space/

²⁴ Air University (SSQ). “China in Space: Ambitions and Possible Conflict.” Strategic Studies Quarterly. Spring 2018. https://www.airuniversity.af.edu/portals/10/ssq/documents/volume-12_issue-1/goswami.pdf

²⁵ Florida International University. “China’s Space Program: A Historical and Strategic Overview.” Steven J. Green School of International & Public Affairs Reports. 2023. https://digitalcommons.fiu.edu/srhreports/cybersecurity/2023/29/

²⁶ Air University (CASI). “China’s Space Program: A 2021 Perspective.” February 16, 2022. https://www.airuniversity.af.edu/Portals/10/CASI/documents/Translations/2022-02-16%20ITOW%20China’s%20Space%20Program-%20A%202021%20Perspective.pdf

²⁷ Air University (CASI). “The Real Space Race: China Will Send a Crew to Orbit Mars by 2050.” May 5, 2025. https://www.airuniversity.af.edu/CASI/Display/Article/4164891/the-real-space-race-china-will-send-a-crew-to-orbit-mars-by-2050/

²⁸ IFLScience. “China Is Exploring Why We Should Train AI In Space With First Supercomputer Array In Orbit.” October 2024. https://www.iflscience.com/china-is-building-the-first-ai-powered-data-center-in-space-why-81060